Propaganda and Persuasion

Chapter 1 What Is Propaganda, and How Does It Differ From Persuasion?

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colored badges. It was then reprinted by newspapers in New York, Jerusalem, Australia, and on numerous websites. After the story was discredited, the President of the United States Middle East Studies Association said it was "typical of black psychological operation campaigns." A former U.S. intelligence official described the article as a "real sign of a disinformation operation" (Lobe, 2006). Propaganda thus runs the gamut from truth to deception. It is, at the same time, always value and ideology laden. The means may vary from a mild slanting of information to outright deception, but the ends are always predetermined to favor the propagandist. Subpropaganda/Facilitative Communication Another dimension of propaganda is what Doob (1948) called "subpropa ganda." Here, the propagandist's task is to spread an unfamiliar doctrine, for which a considerable period of time is needed to build a frame of mind in the audience toward acceptance of the doctrine. To gain the target audience's favor, various stimuli are used to arouse the attention of the audience and the related encoders and agents who mediate communication. L. John Martin (1971), a research administrator in the USIA for 9 years, called sub propaganda "facilitative communication" (p. 62)—that is, an activity designed to keep lines open and maintain contacts against the day when they will be needed for propaganda purposes. Facilitative communication most frequently takes the form of financial aid, radio newscasts, press releases, books, pamphlets, periodicals, cultural programs, exhibits, films, seminars, language classes, reference services, and personal social contacts. These are all arranged in an effort to create a friendly atmosphere toward those who may be needed later. W. Phillips Davison (1971) gave examples of influencing journalists to give favorable press to the United States by offering rides and other services such as office space provided by the U.S. Committee on Public Information, parties, tours of foreign cities, and news scoops. In efforts to counter Arab anger over the war in Iraq, the U.S. State Department has taken Muslim students to the World Cup games in Germany, hosted Arab journalists at training seminars in Washington, D.C., and sent a female undersecretary of state to talk to Muslim women around the world (H. Cooper, 2007). Facilitative communication itself may not be propaganda, but it is communication designed to render a positive attitude toward a potential propagandist. In 1969, 450 active registrations of agencies distributing pro paganda were on file with the U.S. government on behalf of foreign agencies.