The Encyclopedia of World Religions

66 S Buddhism

important to follow the Buddhist path than to wor ship gods. One follows the Buddhist path to redress the root problem that all sentient or conscious beings face: suffering ( see FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS ). Buddhism blames suffering, along with bondage to the world of ordinary existence and rebirth (samsara), on ignorance. Two kinds of ignorance are most impor tant. The first kind leads people to think and act as if they are eternal, unchanging selves or souls. The second leads people to think and act as if things persist, when in fact, Buddhism teaches, abso lutely nothing at all is eternal and unchanging. Ignorance of the truths of “no self” and “imperma nence” leads to attachment and craving, and they in turn lead to suffering. To obtain release from suffering (nirvana), a person must overcome igno rance. That requires an intellectual acknowledg ment of Buddhist truths, but it also requires much more. It requires a total transformation of one’s thought, action, and experience. There are paradoxes hidden in these basic truths of Buddhism, and Mahayana thinkers exp lored them. If one practices Buddhism to achieve nirvana, is one not craving nirvana? Again, if one practices Buddhism to achieve nirvana, is one not acting as if one had a self that could achieve release? Moreover, if one accepts Buddhist teach ings as true, are they not eternal and unchanging? Questions such as these led Mahayana thinkers to formulate views that are subtle and difficult to understand. One such teaching, the “three body doctrine,” suggests that the buddha who appeared in our world, Siddhartha Gautama, was only a manifestation in a world defined by names and forms of what is beyond all names and forms. Another very important teaching holds that everything is empty, including the content of Buddhist teaching. However, in order to attain this ultimate, nirvanic realization, one may first follow the pains of “relative” truths, such as worshipping the manifested forms of the Buddha or seeing enlightenment as something to be gained. In the end, one will understand that nirvana is here and now yet beyond name and form. But M AHAYANA B UDDHISM did not limit itself

to such subtle thinking. It also developed elabo rate mythologies of celestial Buddhas and BODHI SATTVAS . These beings practiced Buddhism not to benefit themselves but to make it possible for all beings to achieve enlightenment. PRACTICES Just as Buddhism has not required its adher ents to reject other religious beliefs, so it has not required them to refrain from other religious prac tices. As a result, Buddhist practice varies widely. Japanese Buddhists participate in S HINTO rituals. Buddhists in parts of southeast Asia engage in spirit-cults. Some specifically Buddhist practices aim at achieving nirvana. T HERAVADA B UDDHISM emphasizes following the Buddha’s Eightfold Path: right views, right thought, right speech, right action, right live lihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Most forms of Buddhism have well developed traditions of MEDITATION . In Theravada, samadhi meditation focuses one’s concentration in turn on a series of exercises in order to correct cer tain vices; vipassana or insight meditation aims at a complete awareness of one’s surroundings. Prac titioners of Z EN B UDDHISM sit and walk in medita tion ( ZAZEN and kinhin ) and at times experience moments of satori, enlightenment. Such moments may come during ordinary activities, too, so that Zen has developed many arts, from swordsman ship to flower arranging. Other forms, such as P URE L AND B UDDHISM , teach their followers to rely on the assistance of a Buddha. Not all specifically Buddhist practices aim at enlightenment. Lay supporters within Theravada give charity, visit STUPAS , and perform other activi ties in the hope of acquiring merit. This merit will result in a better rebirth in the next life and take them one step closer to release. Instead of acquir ing merit for oneself, Mahayana emphasizes acts of compassion to benefit all beings. ORGANIZATION During the 45 years of his wandering as the Bud dha, Siddhartha Gautama organized his commu nity into two groups, the Sangha, that is, the com