The Encyclopedia of World Religions

wisdom literature S 475

wisdom literature: Proverbs, J OB , and Ecclesiastes. Two apocryphal or deuterocanonical books (books found in the Greek Old Testament but not in the Hebrew scriptures; see A POCRYPHA ) belong to this class, too: the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesias ticus, also known as the Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach, or simply Sirach for short. Scholars some times discuss P SALMS and Song of Songs along with wisdom literature, but these are more properly poetic books. During the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars unearthed and deciphered massive amounts of lit erature from the ancient Near East. Among other writings, they found works similar to the biblical books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes. Parts of the Bible’s wisdom literature seem to be based on these other works. For example, a section in Prov erbs called the “Words of the Wise” (22.17–24.34) reflects teachings of an Egyptian wise man named Amenemope. It is difficult to say who wrote most of the wisdom books or when. The books talk about everyday life, so they make little reference to his tory. Some portions claim to derive from King S OLOMON (Proverbs 1.1; Wisdom of Solomon); one collection claims to have been gathered by scribes working for King Hezekiah (Proverbs 25.1). Sir ach may be the exception to the rule. It presents itself as the work of a specific author: Jesus, son of Eleazar, son of Sirach, a biblical scholar who lived and taught in J ERUSALEM . It also contains an introduction by the author’s grandson, who lived in Egypt after 132 B . C . E . and translated the book into Greek. Modern scholars suggest several sources for wisdom literature: royal courts, families, and schools ( see Sirach 51.23). Most wisdom literature seems to have been written after the Babylonian exile (586–539 B . C . E .). The students also seem to have been male; wisdom is personified as female, and they are urged to pursue her. Each wisdom book has its own character. Proverbs contains many brief sayings known as aphorisms. It takes a generally positive atti tude toward life in the world: G OD rewards those who are prudent and work hard; those who are

Wesley’s religious outlook differed from the Calvinism that was dominant in England at the time ( see C ALVIN , John). Calvinists taught that G OD elected some people for SALVATION and others for damnation. Wesley taught that God’s grace had the power to save all human beings. He also taught that it was possible to be certain that one was saved. Wesley’s religious practice also differed from common practice. Wesley refused to acknowledge the boundaries of the parishes within which min isters were supposed to preach. He traveled from place to place preaching. He often preached among industrial workers who had no religious home. Although Wesley hoped to win other ordained ministers for this type of ministry, the demand was greater than the supply, so he enlisted the help of lay preachers. Wesley’s teaching, his traveling, and his use of lay ministers aroused considerable opposition. It also won followers. In 1784 Wesley incorporated a Methodist Conference that was independent of the Church of England. It was to carry on his work after his death. Wesley also left behind many influential writings, including his Sermons and his Journal. He also wrote, translated, and published hymns. Wesley never wanted to found a new church. He always wanted to renew the Church of Eng land. Nevertheless, his innovations and his man ner of working placed him squarely outside the established church. After his death, the Method ist Conference split from the Church of England. Methodism became one of the dominant forms of C HRISTIANITY in the United States after the Revolu tionary War. It also gave rise to offshoots like the Holiness Churches ( see P ENTECOSTALISM and S ALVA TION A RMY ). wisdom literature Sacred literature that empha sizes how to live daily life. Wisdom literature is a modern category, unlike T ORAH and P ROPHETS , which are ancient names for parts of the B IBLE . Scholars generally consider three books in the Hebrew scriptures ( see SCRIPTURES , H EBREW ) to be