The Encyclopedia of World Religions

Taoism S 441

is not forced by deliberate intention. The earliest Taoist texts also apply these ideas to government. That government is best whose subjects are hardly aware of the government’s activities at all. Later Taoism develops a full range of mythologi cal ideas. It teaches that there are many immortals. Some immortals are connected with the world at large. Others are connected with the human body. Taoism has other teachings, too: about islands of the immortals in the eastern ocean, where elixirs of immortality may be found; about the five sacred mountains in China, the most sacred of which is T’ai Shan in the eastern province of Shantung; and about the life-giving properties of various sub stances, such as gold. In addition, Taoism analyzes the human being in detail. For Taoism, the most important life-force is the original breath known as chi. Chi and other life-forces concentrate in three centers: the head, the heart, and the navel. These three “fields” are where the three “holy ones,” the three most important immortals, dwell. They are also home to three beings known as “worms” that devour the vital energy and bring about death. PRACTICES There are two main kinds of Taoist practice: exer cises to prolong one’s life and large, elaborate ritu als for the well-being of the community. The exercises to prolong life try to preserve or restore the vital energy with which a person is born. Certain practices, called the “external elixir,” involve eating and drinking, especially the eating and drinking of metals. For the ancient Chinese, gold symbolized the state that all Taoists sought. It could neither be destroyed nor corrupted. The “external elixir” attempted to synthesize gold from baser substances, especially lead and mercuric sul fide (cinnabar). In theory one acquired long life either by using vessels made with synthesized gold or eating and drinking it. These practices are the source of what came to be known in Europe and North America as alchemy. Around 1000 C . E . the “external elixir” was replaced by an “internal elixir.” In these practices Taoists do not eat or drink physical substances. They perform rituals instead. The rituals include

subjects to perform Taoist practices, for example, to celebrate the birthday of Lao-tzu. The first millennium C . E . was also the time when B UDDHISM came to China. Taoists often opposed Buddhism, and they convinced several rulers to outlaw it. The two religions did, however, influence one another. Taoist ideas helped trans form Buddhism. This can be seen especially in the school known in China as Ch’an and in Japan as Z EN B UDDHISM . Perhaps under Buddhist influ ence, Taoists developed monasteries and convents funded by the state. Throughout most of the second millennium (1001–2000) C . E . Confucianism dominated official Chinese religion. The official outlook promoted the unity of the three religions, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. During this period Taoism devel oped forms more suited to the needs of private individuals than of the official cult. With the victory of communism in mainland China in 1949 and especially the Cultural Revo lution of the late 1960s, Taoism suffered tremen dously. Because the government objected to both old traditions and religion, it opposed Taoism. In the 1980s some Taoist institutions were rebuilt and Taoist WORSHIP resumed. Meanwhile, Taoist prac tice flourished in Chinese communities elsewhere, especially on Taiwan. TEACHINGS The earliest Taoist texts celebrate the Tao. Accord ing to the beginning of the Tao te Ching, it is impossible really to give the Tao a name. It is sim ply indescribable. At the same time, the Tao is the mother of all things. It produces everything in the world, including ourselves. The earliest texts advocate that human beings should live in harmony with the Tao. Consider, for example, water flowing in a stream. What does it do? Strictly speaking, it does nothing. It simply yields to the forces exerted on it. It falls because of the force of gravity; it moves out of the way when it hits a boulder. Yet in simply yielding, water proves to be stronger than the boulder. It wears the boul der away. Taoists find this example instructive. The best human action, they say, is action that