The Encyclopedia of World Religions

Roman Catholicism S 393

break officially with the Orthodox churches—the churches of eastern Europe ( see E ASTERN O RTHODOX C HRISTIANITY )—until 1054 C . E . The Protestants left the Catholic Church only during the R EFORMATION in the 16th century. Nevertheless, the roots of a distinct Roman Catholicism are very old. They go back to a general cultural split in the Roman Empire. The language and culture of the eastern half of the empire were Greek. Those of the western half of the empire were Latin. The bishop of Rome claimed very early to be supreme among bishops. According to tradition he was the successor of P ETER , the most important of J ESUS ’ disciples and the first bishop of Rome. Bishops in the eastern half of the empire never recognized this claim. Jesus’ APOSTLES had founded their most important churches, too. By roughly 500 C . E ., east and west were going their separate ways. Political institutions in the west had largely collapsed. The Pope maintained order. Under his direction, Christianity was brought to northern Europe, for example, to England and Ger many. By 800 C . E . the Holy Roman Empire ruled central and western Europe. When the Pope and the head of the Orthodox churches excommuni cated each other in 1054, the dispute was between distant cousins, not brothers. The Middle Ages were a formative period for Roman Catholicism. Pope Gregory I (pope, 590–604), the Emperor Charlemagne (742–814) systematized the LITURGY of the Mass. A long line of thinkers, stretching from A UGUSTINE OF H IPPO to Thomas A QUINAS , formulated Catholic teachings. Builders constructed impressive churches in the Romanesque style, then churches in the Gothic style that still take one’s breath away ( see CATHE DRAL ). Monks, nuns, and friars practiced a way of life rooted in religious devotion. Mystics, many of them women such as Julian of Norwich and Hil degard of Bingen, reported intense VISIONS of the divine. But this was also the time of the INQUISITION and the C RUSADES . When the Protestants revolted in the Reforma tion, Catholics responded with the Counter-Refor mation. At the Council of Trent ( see T RENT , C OUNCIL OF ) they reformed certain practices but reaffirmed

central Catholic teachings. While many Protestants were rejecting the works of human hands as idola try, the Catholic Church was commissioning mas terpieces of baroque art. Especially with the help of the newly founded Society of Jesus ( see J ESUITS ), Catholic MISSIONARIES preached Christianity in Asia and the Americas. Among the British colonies of North America, Catholics had the closest ties to Maryland. A Cath olic, Cecil Calvert, received the first charter for Maryland. The first Catholic bishop in the United States was the bishop of Baltimore, John Car roll (elevated 1789). Bishop Carroll was a cousin of Charles Carroll, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. During the 19th century the Ameri can Catholic Church grew tremendously as people emigrated from Catholic countries such as Ireland, Italy, and Poland. During the 19th and 20th centuries, Catholics in the Protestant countries of Europe as well as the United States were objects of persecution, some times vile and severe. In this context the election of a Catholic, John F. Kennedy, as president of the United States was a major, positive event. During the same period, the church wrestled with mod ern, scientific thought. The First V ATICAN C OUNCIL (1869–70) rejected modern ideas and asserted the supreme position of the Pope. The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) took a more conciliatory posi tion. By the beginning of the 21st century strong conservative currents were flowing through the church. BELIEFS Catholics affirm the truths of Christianity as for mulated not only in the ancient CREEDS and coun cils but also in all councils of Catholic bishops and in pronouncements of the Pope. They main tain that God is a TRINITY , Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and that Jesus is both fully divine and fully human. In formulating the truths of Christianity, Catholics have tended to use different terms than Orthodox Christians. The Orthodox churches have tended to talk about human beings becoming sacred or divine. Catholic thinkers have tended to