The Encyclopedia of World Religions

22 S anti-Semitism

pendence,” these rights included “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” Influenced by this kind of thinking, one European country after another removed legal restrictions that had been placed on Jews. Especially during the 19th century Jews began in theory to participate equally as full mem bers of European society. In the late 19th century, however, a backlash arose. Some politicians used ideas about race and genetics to develop an anti-Semitic program. They attributed a barrage of vices to Jews and lobbied for the reimposition of traditional restrictions. In the 20th century this backlash attained horrid pro portions in the Nazi H OLOCAUST . Anti-Semitism persists today, but among Americans and Europeans overt anti-Semitism is generally confined to marginal groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and the neo-Nazis. The establish ment of the state of Israel in 1948 has prompted the rise of anti-Semitism in the Islamic world, where it had previously been less prevalent. In the United States, anti-Semitic statements by leaders of the Nation of Islam ( see I SLAM , N ATION OF ) have contributed to tensions between the Jewish and African-American communities. CONCLUSION Anti-Semitism has a long history. It has been espe cially common among European Christians and their descendants. At least for the last 1,000 years, this history has included severe atrocities. At the same time, it would be very wrong to think of all Christians and Muslims as anti-Semites. Especially since World War II, many Christian churches and denominations have worked hard to develop an appreciation and respect for J UDAISM . Further reading: David Cook, Contemporary Muslim Apocalyptic Literature (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2005); Edward H. Flannery, The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism, rev. ed. (New York: Paulist Press, 1985); Rosemary Ruether, Faith and Fratricide (New York: Seabury, 1974); Meyer Weinberg, Because They Were Jews: A History of Antisemitism (New York: Greenwood, 1986).

ANTI-SEMITISM IN THE MEDIEVAL AND REFORMATION PERIODS During the Middle Ages, anti-Semitic activity shifted from the regions around the Mediterranean Sea to Europe. Jews were systematically barred from many economic institutions. The theologian Thomas A QUINAS taught that because Jews were guilty of deicide (“killing God”), princes were permitted to take their property whenever they wanted. Espe cially from 1200 on, Jews were required to live in separate areas, sometimes surrounded by walls. In Italian these areas were called ghettos. In the same period rumors about Jews abounded. They were said to conspire against Christianity, deliberately to desecrate the host (communion bread) as they had desecrated Christ’s body, and to kill Christian children and use their blood for RITUAL purposes. Some Euro pean Christians used the last charge to justify lynching Jews for over 800 years. Also during the Middle Ages, Jews were expelled from every country in Europe except Poland. They fell vic tim to pogroms or massacres, for example during the CRUSADES and the Black Death (1348–50). In addition, some Jews were severely pursued by the Spanish INQUISITION . The Protestant REFORMATION (the 16th century) brought more of the same. For example, Martin L UTHER thought he had purified Christianity of every impediment that had prevented people from becoming Christian. He was offended that Jews did not convert. In 1543 he wrote a book, Against the Jews and Their Lies. In it he encouraged his followers to burn down synagogues and steal land owned by Jews. ANTI-SEMITISM IN THE MODERN PERIOD AND THE PRESENT The movement of thought known as the Enlight enment (the 17th century to the 18th century) changed the position of Jews in European soci ety. It taught that all human beings, by virtue of being human, enjoyed certain basic civil rights. According to the American “Declaration of Inde