The Encyclopedia of World Religions

pacifism, religious S 331

Islam share an ideal of peace, known as shalom in Hebrew and salaam in Arabic. Their histories, however, have led them to pursue this ideal dif ferently. Some parts of the Hebrew scriptures cel ebrate brutal, religiously motivated warfare ( see SCRIPTURES , H EBREW ). Rabbinical Judaism, however, has traditionally emphasized witnessing to God’s truth in the face of oppression and not respond ing to violence with violence. Throughout much of history, then, Jews have been pacifists. One excep tion to this rule was the actions of some Jewish terrorists leading up to the founding of the state of Israel. Unlike Jews, Muslims have often held political power. Furthermore, many have seen the Q UR ’ AN as teaching that Muslims are required to defend Islam by military means, if necessary. This view of JIHAD has led some people, including scholars, to assert that Islamic pacifism is impossible. Never theless, Muslims known as Sufis ( see S UFISM ) have often taken jihad to be not a military but a personal struggle against temptation. Moreover, Abdul Ghaf far Khan (1890–1988), a leader in the movement that led to the creation of Pakistan, was a staunch Muslim, a close personal friend of Mohandas G AN DHI , and an advocate of unconditional nonvio lence. He saw no contradiction between pacifism and Islam. Today many Muslims, like many other people around the world, actively work for peace. Among Christians pacifism has often charac terized outsider movements—small groups that have broken away from the Christian mainstream. In the Middle Ages both the W ALDENSIANS , mem bers of a 12th-century movement in southern France condemned as heretics, and the followers of John Wycliffe ( c. 1320–84) were pacifists. Anabap tist groups that arose during the Reformation and later, like the M ENNONITES , A MISH , and Brethren, are pacifists. So, too, are members of the Society of Friends, often known as Q UAKERS . A famous exam ple was William Penn (1644–1718), who refused to use violence against native Americans. In the past 100 years Christian pacifists in the United States have opposed war, such as the war in Vietnam. They have also advocated that countries disarm. Many Christians, however, reject pacifism. They

By the beginning of the 21st century, few if any Pacific Ocean religions survived in traditional form. Christian MISSIONARIES had converted the entire area. During the 19th and 20th centuries, Pacific Ocean islanders also developed distinct rit uals known as CARGO CULTS . These cults sought to make their followers prosperous in material goods. They often taught that “white men,” (their ances tors) were going to bring them material goods as gifts. pacifism, religious Refusal, motivated by reli gious principles, to engage in acts of violence or war. Nonreligious people have embraced pacifism, too, and religious people may adopt pacifism for reasons other than religious ones. But the world’s religions have given rise to some of the most important traditions of pacifism ( see, however, WAR AND RELIGION ). Extremely influential traditions of religious pacifism derive from ancient India. Religious paci fism in its fullest form may be found in J AINISM . Jains advocate complete AHIMSA or noninjury. In pursuing this ideal, Jains avoid all violence against other human beings. They even refuse to consider any statements to be absolutely true. To do so, they say, would injure those who see the world differently than they do. B UDDHISM arose at the same time as Jainism. It, too, embraces the ideal of ahimsa. Some claim that there is no justification within Buddhism for war of any kind. One well-known example of Buddhist pacifism from ancient times is the emperor A SOKA . Early in life he finished the conquest of India that his ancestors had begun. But the conquest was so bloody that in remorse, it is said, Asoka adopted Buddhism and renounced violence. Today Bud dhists are very active in promoting peace. Orga nizations that do so in North America include the Buddhist Peace Fellowship and the Zen Peace maker Order. Influential Buddhist spokespersons for peace include the Vietnamese monk Thich Nhat Hanh (b. 1926) and the D ALAI L AMA (b. 1935). J UDAISM , C HRISTIANITY , and I SLAM have also had pacifist movements. In one sense Judaism and