The Encyclopedia of World Religions

Native American religions S 313

land that had previously belonged to other people, and it used religion to justify that action. These movements generally used political action to try to achieve their ends. Some extremists also used physical violence. Religious nationalists generally perceived themselves as embattled communities, even when, as in India, they claimed to speak for an overwhelming majority. They saw themselves as reasserting a necessary union between govern ment and religion (“The United States should be a ‘Christian nation’.”). They also saw themselves as reasserting several other points: tradition and its values against modernity and its depravities; a religious view of the world over a secular one; the proper identity of a particular people over the homogenizing global culture created by multina tional corporations and the mass media; national purity in the face of growing plurality; and power in the face of perceived powerlessness and disenfranchisement. The rise of religious nationalism caught many observers by surprise. In their eyes, global communications and travel had held out great promise. The nationalist ambitions in World War II had produced grisly horrors. The force of sec ularism was supposed to be irresistible. In the second half of the 20th century a growing inter nationalism was supposed to take the place of nationalist loyalties. At the beginning of the 21st century, it was impossible to predict the ultimate fate of religious nationalist movements. Were they the futile, last gasps of those dissatisfied with the irresistible march of a global civilization? Would the sparks of violence that religious nationalism had already occasionally ignited once again light the flames of full-scale violence? Or were religious national ist movements genuine and convincing religious alternatives that would continue to attract follow ers in great numbers? It seems certain, at least, that the takeover of Iraq in spring 2003 by the United States and the United Kingdom has led to an increase in religious nationalism among some Muslims, including those associated with the radi cal group AL -Q AEDA .

Native American religions The religions of the peoples whose ancestors lived in the Ameri cas before Columbus. Separate entries discuss the religions of the major pre-Columbian civilizations: Maya religion, Aztec religion, and Inca religion. The indigenous peoples of the Americas have never constituted a single group. They represent many languages, cultures, and religions. For exam ple, before Columbus arrived, the Americas were home to civilizations in the Valley of Mexico, the lowlands of the Yucatan Peninsula, and the Andes Mountains. Some peoples in the eastern United States had large settlements near mounds that served as bases for temples. The Anasazi in the Southwest built impressive residential communi ties. Both the inhabitants of the Great Plains and the inhabitants of the Amazon basin lived by hunt ing and gathering. Nevertheless, they had signifi cantly different ways of life. They also had signifi cantly different religions. General statements about Native American reli gions inevitably distort them. Such statements may, however, give some indication of their character. Most traditional Native American religions aimed to further life in this world. They involved give-and-take relationships with persons who rep resented the powers of nature. Outsiders usually called these persons gods or spirits. When these beings had a particularly close relationship with one group of relatives (a lineage), they were some times called totems. The giving and taking took the form of offerings, SACRIFICES , and PRAYERS . It furthered traditional means of earning a living: hunting and agriculture. It also helped heal ( see HEALING , RELIGIOUS ). Outsiders often call religious healers shamans ( see SHAMANISM ). Shamans played major roles in most of the tra ditional indigenous religions of South America. In addition, most South Americans traditionally told stories about a creator. But they did not worship this creator much because the creator had little to do with daily life. Twins figured prominently in the traditional religious stories and RITUALS of South America. For example, the Ge in eastern Bra zil worshipped the sun and the moon, both male. Across northern South America, from the Atlantic