The Encyclopedia of World Religions

276 S Malinowski, Bronislaw

Further reading: The Autobiography of Malcolm X, with the assistance of Alex Haley (New York: Ballantine Books, 1999); David Gallen, ed., A Malcolm X Reader (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1994); Bruce Perry, Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America (Barrytown, N.Y.: Station Hill, 1991). Malinowski, Bronislaw (1884–1942) anthro pologist who was born in Poland and worked in England Malinowski was one of the founders of the movement known as FUNCTIONALISM . He is important for several reasons. Before Malinowski’s time, those who studied the religions of indigenous peoples simply relied on reports of travelers, missionaries, and colonial officials. Malinowski actually lived among the Pacific islanders about whom he wrote. He estab lished the practice of “fieldwork,” which is now expected of all anthropologists. Malinowski also developed important ideas about religion, MAGIC , and myth. As he developed these views, he criticized the ideas of thinkers like Émile D URKHEIM and Sigmund F REUD . In Malinowski’s view, religion functioned to comfort people when they experienced anxiety or tragedy. Magic was an activity to which people resorted when they could not be sure that practi cal, goal-oriented activity was going to work. Myth provided a society with its “charter.” It made soci ety legitimate by tracing its parts back to the activ ity of religious beings. Malinowski’s ideas dominated the study of religion by anthropologists until the 1960s. Since that time many anthropologists have been more interested in religious symbols and meanings. See also RELIGION , STUDY OF . mandala Sanskrit for “circle”; a sacred diagram used in H INDUISM and B UDDHISM , especially in secret RITUALS known as Tantric rituals. The same basic shape underlies most mandalas: a point at the intersection of two perpendicular axes, located at the center of a square or circle. The area of the

circle or square is further subdivided in conformity with the axes, often by means of concentric circles or other designs. A mandala is a schematic representation of the cosmos. Its various areas are often seen as the abode of various deities, BUDDHAS , and BOD HISATTVAS . By using mandalas in rituals and as objects of MEDITATION , practitioners aim at realizing within themselves the central force that sustains the universe. Mandalas have been rendered in a variety of media. They have provided the grids upon which architects have built Hindu temples. Similarly, the mountain-like STUPA at Borobudur in Indonesia is a massive Buddhist mandala. Mandalas have also been executed in less permanent media, such as paint or ink on paper or cloth, and with colored powders or sands. Tibetan thang-kas or scroll paintings are particularly well-known examples of these sorts of mandala. Manichaeism Religion founded by the prophet Mani ( c. 216– c. 276 C . E .). At one time or another Manichaeism was practiced in Europe and Asia, from Spain to China. It died out for good around 1500. The name comes from “Manichaeos.” This term transcribes the title, Mani Hayya, “Mani the Living,” into Greek. Mani was born around 216 C . E . in what is today southeastern Iraq. In the year 240 an angelic messenger, “The Twin,” appeared to him. It told him to leave his religious community and begin teaching. He did. Mani saw himself as the Seal of the Prophets. He combined into one supreme truth the partial truths that the B UDDHA , Z ARATHUSTRA , and J ESUS had taught. Mani carefully recorded his teach ings in writing so that his own views would not be distorted. These writings, however, have largely disappeared. In addition to writing, Mani traveled widely. His first missionary journey took him to the area near present-day Pakistan. Mani’s teaching aroused the opposition of the Zoroastrian priests. Under their influence, Bahram I, king of Persia, interrogated Mani for four days, imprisoned him