The Encyclopedia of World Religions

Congregationalism S 101

the Analects: New Essays (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

nese as jen. The term is difficult to translate but means something like “genuine humanity.” Confu cius taught that people could realize this internal quality by means of external observances: They could become genuinely humane by performing their duties without thought of reward ( yi ) and by observing the rules of propriety ( li ) that govern relations between human beings. When applied to specific roles, Confucius referred to the process of cultivating virtue as a “rectification of names,” that is, making reality conform to the names. For example, Confucius taught that if one is called a parent or a child, one ought to behave like a par ent or child. In Confucius’s teaching, family relationships are the cornerstone of society, and the respect of children for parents is a cardinal virtue. Within society, Confucius advocates the principle of reciprocity: “Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire” (Analects 15.24). He also teaches that the best way to govern is not with rules and punishments but through propriety and the moral example of the rulers. After Confucius died, followers gathered say ings attributed to him into a volume known as the Analects ( see A NALECTS OF C ONFUCIUS ). It is the major source for Confucius’s ideas. Beginning with the Han dynasty (206 B . C . E .), Confucianism became officially established in China. Civil servants were required to pass a grueling examination in the five Confucian classics. Imperial officials main tained the cult of Confucius as part of their official duties. Eventually every prefecture (a political unit something like a county) in China—over 2,000 in all—had its temple to Confucius. Although the specific fortunes of Confucianism varied, Confu cius’s teachings shaped official Chinese life until the Communist Revolution under Mao Tse-tung in 1949. It is likely that they continue to shape unof ficial life today. Further reading: Herrlee Creel, Confucius and the Chinese Way (New York: Harper, 1960); Raymond Dawson, Confucius (New York: Hill & Wang, 1982); D. Howard Smith, Confucius (New York: Scribner, 1973); Bryon W. Van Norden, ed., Confucius and

Congregationalism A way of organizing Chris tian churches. It is especially associated with a group of churches that has played a major role in the history of religion in the United States. At its most general, Congregationalism insists that local Christian congregations should be inde pendent and govern themselves. This does not mean that these congregations should not join together for joint activity. Indeed, most Congrega tionalist churches have been eager to work with others who hold similar views. But it does mean that congregations call their own ministers and determine for themselves how they will WORSHIP . This “congregational polity” is quite different from the “episcopal polity” found in, for example, the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox churches, and the Church of England. In an episcopal arrangement, the church is governed by a bishop. The bishop appoints priests and, in conjunction with other bishops, determines what beliefs and practices the church requires. As a name for a group of churches, Congre gationalism is mostly a movement in the English speaking world. It arose in England in the late 16th century as an alternative to the Church of England ( see A NGLICANISM ). Congregationalism has con tinued in England up to the present day. But the movement thrived in North America, especially in New England. In 1609 a group of Congregationalists fled to Holland to escape persecution in England. In 1620 some of them traveled to the shores of North Amer ica. Their boat was the Mayflower, they landed at Plymouth, they founded Plymouth colony, and they entered American legend as the Pilgrims. These Congregationalists joined with the Puritans ( see P URITANISM ) who settled nine years later in the area of Boston. Congregationalism became the established or official religion of the colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. In the 1730s a Congregationalist minis ter, Jonathan Edwards, started the first “Great