The Encyclopedia of World Religions

98 S confession of sin

at the end of the sixth century B . C . E . Since then, Confucianism has often been the official ideology of the Chinese state. HISTORY Confucius [Latin for K’ung-fu-tzu, “Master K’ung” (551–479 B . C . E .)] was a profoundly influential teacher who emphasized that, because human beings are social creatures, a good society is impor tant to a good human life. But he also realized that a good society in turn depends on good, highly motivated people. The first goal, then, must be to cultivate humaneness within oneself. He believed this was something all people can do. He is said moreover to have edited five classic books of Chi nese thought, and his disciples gathered his own teaching into a collection known as the Analects ( see A NALECTS OF C ONFUCIUS ). Later Confucians taught proper behavior in terms of five relationships: ruler–subject, father– son, elder brother–younger-brother, husband– wife, and friend–friend. They also developed specific views of humaneness. Mencius (Chinese, Meng-tzu) ( c. 372– c. 289 B . C . E .) had an optimistic view of the human being. Humaneness, he said, is present in all human beings; it simply needs the right nurturing in order to blossom and flourish. Hsun Tzu ( c. 300–238 B . C . E .) disagreed. In his view people are by nature evil and uncivil. To avoid the evils that result from greed and contention, people must be restrained by teaching and observances. At the time Hsun Tzu was more influential. As time passed, however, Mencius’s positions came to dominate Confucian thinking. In 195 B . C . E . the Han emperor offered a pig, a sheep, and an ox at the grave of Confucius. This act marked the beginning of the official link between Confucianism and the Chinese govern ment. To become a government official, one had to pass grueling examinations in Confucianism and the Confucian classics. The cult of Confucius also became a major part of an official’s duties. When the Han dynasty ended in 220 C . E ., Confucianism was temporarily eclipsed. Its place at court was taken by BUDDHISM and TAOISM . But around 1000 C . E . the fortunes of Confucianism

than harmful. They have especially helped mem bers of minority communities living away from their home base, such as Hindus and Muslims in North America, find others who share their hopes and beliefs. They also strengthen such people’s sense of belonging to the religion by allowing them to participate in a virtual community. One problem with such communities, however, con cerns authority. For example, the advice a person receives from a GURU , RABBI , or priest online may turn out to come from a well-meaning adult who does not have the education that is expected in a religious professional—or even from a 13-year-old having fun. Because human beings find religion in so many places, it would not be surprising to discover that computers have taken on religious significance for some people. One might even say that computers have already given the world one millennial cult, a cult built around expectations of disaster at the end of an age. In 1999 many people worried about “Y2K”: What disasters might strike if the world’s computer networks all failed on January 1, 2000? The disasters people imagined and the steps they took to avoid them resembled what has happened in many earlier millennial movements. Further reading: Brenda E. Brasher, Give Me That Online Religion (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001); Gary R. Bunt, Virtually Islamic: Computer-Mediated Communication and Cyber Islamic Environments (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2000); Heidi Campbell, Exploring Religious Community Online: We Are One in the Network (New York: P. Lang, 2005); Douglas E. Cowan, Cyberhenge: Modern Pagans on the Internet (New York: Routledge, 2005); Jeffrey K. Hadden and Douglas E. Cowan, eds., Religion on the Internet: Research Prospects and Promises (New York: JAI, 2000).

confession of sin See SACRAMENT .

Confucianism Influential East Asian spiritual and ethical tradition. It originated with C ONFUCIUS