The Encyclopedia of World Religions

circumcision S 95

(Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003); W. Barnes Tatum, Jesus at the Movies: A Guide to the First Hundred Years (Santa Rosa, Calif.: Polebridge, 1997).

able in video shops that are not, perhaps, widely known to most Americans. A once popular director who often treated religious themes is Ingmar Bergman (b. 1918). His films, such as The Seventh Seal (1957) and The Virgin Spring (1960), explore existentialist ideas, which deal with aspects of life that seem meaning less and absurd. Schindler’s List (1993) is one of many films that deal with the Shoah or H OLOCAUST . The earlier film E XODUS (1960) recounts the found ing of the state of Israel. Deepa Mehta (b. 1950) has explored interreligious violence in her power ful but graphic film Earth (1998). It portrays events in Lahore during the partition of India and Paki stan in 1947. Himalaya (1999) deals with an issue found in many societies—the conflict between age and youth, traditional religion and modern science—from the perspective of people living in Nepal. The Burmese Harp (1956) uses B UDDHISM in exploring the situation of Japanese soldiers faced with defeat in World War II. An Iranian film, Chil dren of Heaven (1997), and a Kurdish film, Time for Drunken Horses (2000), may be more ethical than religious. Both deal in powerful ways with brothers and sisters who look out for one another in situations of poverty and war. The recent Span ish film The Sea Inside (2004) explores the contro versial issue of suicide and euthanasia ( see SUICIDE AND RELIGION ) by telling the story of Ramon Sampe dro, a paralyzed Spanish man who committed sui cide with the help of friends. Two Danish films, Babette’s Feast (1987) and Italian for Beginners (2000), find religious fulfillment in close human relationships. In doing so, they echo Christian emphases on the communion meal and the word of God. Further reading: Albert J. Bergesen and Andrew M. Greeley, God in the Movies, preface by Roger Ebert (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2000); John Lyden, Film as Religion: Myths, Morals, and Rituals (New York: New York University Press, 2003); S. Brent Plate, ed., Representing Religion in World Cinema: Filmmaking, Mythmaking, Culture Making (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Adele Reinhartz, Scripture on the Silver Screen

circumcision The cutting away of the male foreskin. The term is sometimes also applied to clitoridectomy, the cutting away of corresponding female organs. Circumcision is widely practiced among indig enous peoples, especially in Australia and East Africa. It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protes tant Christians do not require circumcision. Start ing in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Chris tians in Europe and especially in North America. It did so allegedly for reasons of hygiene. The actual medical benefits seem minimal. Indigenous peoples have often practiced cir cumcision as part of the RITUALS that mark the male reaching adulthood ( see INITIATION , RELIGIOUS ). Prac tices vary widely, and so do the reasons given for the practice. For some, circumcision is a way to remove residual feminine characteristics from the maturing boy. In any case, it prepares the boy for future adult life, including sexual relations with women. For Jews, Coptic Christians, and Muslims, cir cumcision is a sign of membership in the group. It is an old rite. It was practiced in ancient Egypt even before the time of A BRAHAM ( see E GYPTIAN RELI GION ). In Hebrew, circumcision is known as brit milah, “covenant of circumcision.” Colloquially, Jews refer to it simply as bris. In Arabic, circumci sion is called tahur, “purification.” Jews circumcise men as a sign of God’s COV ENANT with them. The command to circumcise was given to Abraham (Genesis 17.9–27). Under M OSES it was extended to non-Jews who wanted to eat the P ASSOVER meal (Exodus (12.43–49). Jewish boys are to be circumcised on the eighth day after birth. Jews have traditionally required adult male converts to be circumcised, too. The Reform movement has not always insisted on this.